In the early 1600's, the Jurchen tribes of present-day Manchuria began to evolve as a civilization, leaning towards trade and coming together as a unified political entity. They created the banner system, an organization of the Jurchen people into four military states with their own appointed leaders. Jurchen society became more and more bureaucratic. The changes in Jurchen politics were symbolized by changing the nation's name to Manchu. 1
At the same time, Chinese society was at a social, political and economical decline under the Ming dynasty. When rebel Li Zicheng overtook Beijing, the Manchus were called in to help the Chinese fight off Li Zicheng's forces. After defeating the insurrectionist, the Manchus took hold of their advantage over China and seized Beijing. 1
With China in their position, the Manchus became a minority power over a vast majority of Chinese. Manchu officials realized the great potential for revolt if the Chinese felt they were being violated or discriminated against. Therefore, they made sure to strategically maintain ethnic equality between the Manchus and the Chinese. Chinese officials were allowed to stay in office, records were kept in both languages, and civil rights were, for the most part, preserved. However, the Manchus did pass a law in which they forced Chinese men to shave their heads in the front, wearing pigtails in the back in the style of Manchu tradition. This was a humiliation to many, as hair was considered sacred in Chinese culture. Nevertheless, the Manchu administration was generally very careful to avoid ethnic conflicts. In 1636, Emperor Abahai of the Manchus gave the name Qing to his new dynasty. (1)
The Qing emperors had incredible power over their Chinese and Manchu subjects, ruling with a tyrannical hand. Subjects had limited freedom of speech rights; for example, emperors conducted "literary inquisitions," where any material believed to be against the government was censored, and anyone connected to the work punished through torture, and/or the execution of family members.(2)

It was not until the rules of emperors Kangxi (1644-1661) and Qian Long (1735-1795) that the Qing dynasty rose its peak strength. Described as, "Kind, gentle, yet resolute," Kangxi was reputed to be a political genius both in internal and foreign affairs. (2) Qianlong was also respected for his campaigns for "economic prosperity, administrative efficiency, and artistic excellence." Both leaders worked successfully towards peace with tribes along the empire's borders. (3)
As for foreign policy, the Qing emperors were happy to trade with European merchants, and to establish good relations with western kings. However, much restriction was placed on the entry of westerners into Qing lands. Should a European wish to come to China, they must adopt the all the Qing customs, and never return to

Emperor Qianlong

Europe. This was enforced to prevent outside influences from seeping into Chinese culture. Because China was in such a state of prosperity, the Chinese felt they were in a "celestial" position, they did not want to "taint" their country with foreign influence. Emperor Qianlong manifests this national arrogance in a letter to King George III of Britain when he states, "I set no value on objects strange or ingenious, and I have no use for your country's manufactures." The Qing emperors stayed wary of foreigners and their "barbarian" ways (4)
However, the Qing dynasty brought their own downfall through problems of corruption within the bureaucracy. Also, as the population growth of the 17th and 18th centuries became a major factor for the deterioration of the Chinese government. The ratio of politicians representing the population declined, and because so few politicians were being flooded with so much work, affairs were turned over to civilians, and the government began to lose power. Finally, rebellions from groups such as the White Lotus Society, a Pure Land Buddhist group, as well as aboriginal tribes and pirates contributed to the gradual decline in the political system of the Qing dynasty. (1)

1. "Qing Dynasty." Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2000. 1993-1999.

2. Huang, Ray. China, a Macrohistory. Armonk, NY: M.E Sharpe, 1988.

3. Spielvogel, Jackson J. World History The Human Odyssey. West Educational Publishing, 1998.

4. "Chinese Cultural Studies: Emperor Qian Long: Letter to George III, 1793." Brooklyn College. http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/qianlong.html. Last Updated 11-1-98. Visited 10-17-00.

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