Chemistry Project: Metallurgy
Identification of metal ores:
 

Alluvial deposits will be the easiest source of the ores you are looking for. For some ores you may need to develop mining technology.

Copper: Copper ores include both oxide (CuO )and sulfide ( CuS ) ores. Cuperite, malachite and azurite are the first class of copper ores. They can be easily reduced to the metal by heating with charcoal. Malachite (cupric carbonate, CuCO3 )is a common ore. The second class of ores include chalcocite, chalcopyrite, bornite and covellite. They are compounds of copper and sulfur. They are more common than the first class of copper ore and generally found in deeper strata.

Silver and Lead: Galena (lead sulfide, PbS ) is a silver and lead ore, it is often associated with copper ores. It is desulpurized by roasting which will form lead oxide (litharge). This is then reduced to remove the oxygen. The product was really an alloy of lead and silver. The silver can be extracted by a process called cupellation.

Tin: Cassiterite (SnO2) is an ore rich in tin.

Iron: Iron can be found as meteoric iron and as many ores such as magnetite (Fe3O4), Hematite (Fe2O3), ochres Fe2O2,hydrated), and siderite FeCO3).

Antimony can be separated from the ore stibnite (antimony sulfide).

 

Mining:
 
 
Processing ores:
 

Furnaces and crucibles are needed to process the ore. You will also need a supply of charcoal. Copper oxides and carbonates just need to be roasted with charcoal. Sulfide ores like chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) may also contain traces of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. The ore is first roasted to remove surplus sulfur and volatile oxides of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. Next the ore is roasted with coke and siliceous fluxes. This separates the the cuprous sulfide. Then a blast of air is introduced, this removes any iron present and some of the copper sulfide is converted into copper oxide. The sulfide and oxide then react together to give copper of about 98% purity.

Processing of iron ore is much harder than copper ores. The ore is smelted resulting in a "bloom"which is a spongy mass of fused stone with small globules of iron. If you hammer and reheat this slag you eject the slag and mould the iron into wrought-iron. If you repeatedly hammer and heat using charcoal followed by quenching in water you will produce iron that is superior to bronze in hardness.

Wrought iron contains little or no carbon, and is doft and malleable. Cast-iron contains between 1.5 and 5% carbon and is hard and brittle, and has alower melting point than vrought-iron. Steel's carbon content varies from 0.15 and 1.5% carbon and this varies its properties.

 

Metal working:
 

Copper and its alloys can only be hardened by cold hammering along the cutting edge. Tools will approach the hardness of mild steel, but not the tensile strength.

 

Alloys:
 

Bronze as a Copper alloy. Most bronzes contain tin, but some also contain antimony, arsenic and zinc. If levels of arsenic get to high then the bronze will be too brittle and hard. Tin bronze is far superior to unalloyed copper in terms of strength, hardness and casting properties.

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.

 

Other areas of technology to investigate:

Metallurgy: Identification of ores, mining and processing of ores, metal working, formation of alloys

Farming: Cultivation of land, preparation and maintaining the fertility of the soil

Transportation: ship building

Health: Basic hygiene, clean water

 

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